The AMI Podcast Al-Mahdi Institute

The impact of Artificial Intelligence (AI) on our lives prompts profound questions beyond the technical realm. While shaping the future of humanity, AI also challenges diverse worldviews, reducing rich human experiences to data analysis. This pragmatic lens can overshadow aspects of our reality, marginalizing or, at worst, destroying what isn't understood. Understanding is paramount because, in human-machine interactions, misunderstandings may harm only the vulnerable human side. With Islam being integral to many lives, its worldviews, imaginations, and values should be considered in AI development beyond simplistic pattern-recognition and statistical approaches. Therefore, it is important to consider the integration of Islamic epistemological perspectives into AI as a crucial aspect of future research.

The revival of Shi‘ite Sufism, after the destruction of Safavid empire, occurred during the Zand dynasty (1163-1209/1750-1794) and continued through the Qājār era. As Zarrīnkub has pointed out, the Qājār era was a time of nostalgia for the noble past. Of course, their mystical philosophy had to fit the theological standards of Shi‎‘ite society. The two leading Sufi orders in this revival movement were the Ni‘matullāhīs and the Dhahabīs. These two orders had much in common, as both of them highly emphasized the importance of following Islamic laws and Shi‎‘ite beliefs. They were known to be the propagators of Akbarian philosophy in Persia. Dhahabīs and Ni‘matullāhīs were strong promoters of the school of “Unity of Being” (Waḥdat al-wujūd).



Mīrzā Muḥammad Taqī, with the spiritual title of Muẓaffar ‘Alī Shāh (d.1215/1800) is one of the most influential masters in the history of Ni‘matullāhiyya order. This Shi‘ite Sufi master is one of the most active and knowledgeable masters of the Ni‘matullāhīs during this era. He is the first master after the return of the order to Persia who wrote about its cosmological views, based on the philosophy of “Unity of Being”. In his youth, he began studying the rational and traditional seminary sciences (‘ulūm ‘aqlī wa naqlī) and became well-versed in them. Muẓaffar was more of a mystic philosopher (ḥakīm) than a jurist (faqīh), and extremely well-versed in speculative Sufism, following the school of “Unity of Being”.

Muẓaffar ‘Alī Shāh’s mystical poetry had in-depth mystical meanings, with heavy reliance of Ibn ‘Arabī’s philosophy and terminology. Muẓaffar was very influential for the development of the Ni‘matullāhī order and as a propagator of Ibn ‘Arabī’s thoughts. His beliefs about the perfect man, insān-i kāmil, were highly influenced by Akbarian (Ibn ‘Arabī’s) philosophy. Muẓaffar passed away in 1215/1800. He wrote numerous books and literary papers, which are tremendously valuable for a better understanding of Ni‘matullāhī thought.

Muẓaffar ‘Alī Shāh wrote poetry lamenting over his separation from his master, Mushtāq, to whom he dedicated a compendium of his poetry, calling it Diwān-i Mushtāqīyya. In this paper, we will examine two of Muẓaffar's writings: “Sea of the Secrets” (baḥr al-asrār) and “Compendium of the Seas” (majma‘ al-biḥār) which are both interpretations of the first chapter of Quran. “Sea of the Secrets” (baḥr al-asrār) is in verse form of Mathnawī and “Compendium of the Seas” (majma‘ al-biḥār) is written in prose. In these two works, Muẓaffar ‘Alī Shāh heavily relied on the chapter of Prophet Adam in Fuṣūṣ al-ḥikam of Ibn ‘Arabī. He had numerous references to Ibn ‘Arabī and his writings. Muẓaffar ‘Alī Shāh explains the relationship between Nubuwwa (prophethood), Risāla (apostleship) and Wilāya (sainthood) based on Ibn ‘Arabī’s teachings using his terminology like the disclosure of Attributes of Divine Majesty (jalāl) and disclosure of Attributes of Divine Beauty (jamāl). This paper investigates the importance of Muẓaffar ‘Alī Shāh for survival of the school of “Unity of Being” among practicing Shi‘ite Sufis in general and the Ni‘matullāhī Sufi in particular as one of the most important Shi‘ite Sufi orders in Iran.

The metaphysical perspective of Ibn ʿArabī oscillates constantly between the distinction of the different relations that determine being, and the constant return to the indistinction of being itself. According to Ibn ʿArabī, only perplexity (ḥayra) is suited to the apperception of being, while the distinction and articulation of the relations that weave themselves into being seem, for their part, to require a mode of knowledge that allows for differentiation.

This presentation will show how the articulation of the various elements of Ibn ʿArabī’s metaphysical system is based on a “correlative ontology”, according to which existing realities are distinguished within a web of relations woven within the single being, while having no existence of their own, since they ultimately refer to the relation that being maintains with itself. It will then explain how this correlative ontology allows Ibn ʿArabī to found different levels of relationships, within which the notions of Creation and Divinity and their different modalities of correlation emerge.



This circular conception of being, in which the fundamental status of existing things is qualifiable only by perplexity, corresponds also to the circular movement that Ibn ʿArabī associates with “the perplexity of the muḥammadan” (ḥayrat al-muḥammadī). This movement of rotation around the pole of being, by which the latter is envisaged in an infinitely renewed way, is opposed by Ibn ʿArabī to the “linear” path (mustaṭīl), which for its part always necessarily relates to a particular determination of being, and thereby prevents it from being envisaged in itself.

There is no doubt in the claim that the foremost interpreter of Ibn ‘Arabi (d. 638/1240) within Twelver Shi’ism is Sayyid Haydar al-Amuli (d. 787/1385), who in his Jami’ al-Asrar thoroughly filtered the Akbarian doctrine in such a way that it emerged in accordance with the theological demands of the Twelver tradition. While Amuli’s accomplishments in these regards are acknowledged, it is not known whether any schools arose within the intellectual centers of Iran and Iraq loyal specifically to his ideology; it is instead in the Islamic periphery of India, where demonstrable evidence exists to indicate the existence of such a school therein. Sayyid Nur Allah Shushtari (d. 1019/1620), the martyred Mughal chief justice, quite openly aligns with Amuli in his Majalis al-Mu’minin (Gathering of the Believers), labeling him as Sayyid al-Muti'allihin (Lord of the heavenly ones) whilst openly appropriating ideas from Amuli’s Jami’ al-Asrar to develop the thesis of his majlis-i shishum (sixth gathering) on Sufi believers. Shushtari argues that in essence Sufism and Shi’ism are one and the same, one is an inward expression whereas the other is outward. Furthermore, in his Majalis al-Mu’minin, Shushtari includes a lengthy entry on Ibn ‘Arabi, providing illumination on his supposed hidden Shi’ism, as well as a defense of Akbarian monism. Shushtari’s views have routinely been categorized as aberrational by mainstream Usulis, like al-Wahid al-Bihbahani (d. 1205/1791), who decried him as a Shi’ah-tarash (Shi’ah fabricator); it is thus of great intrigue that when Bihbahani’s student, Sayyid Dildar ‘Ali Naqawi Nasirabadi (d. 1235/1820), returned to North India in 1781 with the aim of spreading Usulism, he met stiff resistance by Twelver Chishtis (Sufis), who claimed to follow a supposed ideological school of Haydar al-Amuli linked with Shushtari. This occurs more than 150 years after the execution of Shushtari, indicating that such an Akbarian-Amulian lineage potentially existed in North India; also giving credence to the Sufi-Shi’i nexus claims of majlis-i shishum. In order to delve further into this matter, Nasirabadi’s polemic against this group, titled al-Shihab al-Thaqib, and the rejoinder prepared by this Akbarian-Amulian group, Radd-i al-Shihab al-Thaqib, will be analyzed and expounded upon in this paper.

The notion of the unity of being and its self-manifestation as elaborated upon by Mahmood Dawud al-Qaysari, the illustrious interpreter of Ibn Arabi, assumes on the one hand an essential state of hiddenness and unknowableness of the ipseity whilst on the other, it permeates all being . Allah as the epiphanic self-recognition of the ipseity is the fullest expression of the ipseity to itself and is a source of all manifestations in forms of the unending names of Allah. However Allah as the fullest expression of the ipseity is curtailed to the domain of what the ipseity conceives of itself in relation to what it wishes to reveal of itself as God. Thus ipseity is simply is-ness whereas God is is-ness in manifestation.

Accordingly the name Allah is simultaneously a designation of the unknowable ipseity and of God who is the author of the world: its beginning and end, the apparent and its hidden. Therefore there is a distinction between the unknowable ipseity termed Allah and its self-recognition as Allah. The ipseity qua itself is beyond the notion of God whereas the Ipseity through the process of self-revelations and descents from the rank of Allah acquires the meaning of being God.

Through this distinction it becomes clear that the unity of being from the perspective of the ipseity is beyond the notion of God and does not recognise God-world distinction; it simply is all things and beyond all things. The distinction between God and the world only arises through a relationship that exists between Allah and the world which is in need of being governed (ma’luh).

This paper will explore how the lack of nuance between Allah depicting the Absolutely unknowable ipseity and Allah as the manifester of the ipseity within the emanationist scheme has led to ambiguity and conflation between descriptions of the Author of the world and the Absolutely unknowable in the thoughts of likes of Sadra. Thus at times the arguments from contingency to prove the Necessary being simply lead to the notion of Allah as God but not Allah as the ipseity which does not allow for any distinction. Similarly the idea of the proximity through emanation of the first intellect with Allah and the distance of prim-matter from Allah whilst maintaining that all are His reflections equally at once beyond the consideration of time, place and causality fails to clarify that proximity and distance is in relation to Allah as God and lack of distance and proximity is in relation to Allah as the hidden ipseity.

Additionally this distinction will be used identify the differing ranks of God mentioned within the Quran and the spiritual literature of the Prophet and the Imams through the variety of functions and descriptions of God.

This study delves into "Risāla-yi Nūr-i Waḥdat" (Treatise of the Light of Oneness) by Khwāja Khurd (b. 1010/1601), a seminal work in the Naqshbandi Sufi tradition that has also been influential in the Sufi School of Najaf within the Shia Seminary. Renowned for its eloquent yet accessible language, Khurd's treatise advocates the Akbarian doctrine of Waḥdat al-Wujūd (Unity of Being) over Sirhindī’s Waḥdat al-Shuhūd.

A central tenet of the Sufi School of Najaf is the understanding of self-knowledge as the gateway to the Gnosis of God. Khurd’s treatise deeply explores this concept, suggesting that the journey (Suluk) to recognizing the Real Being in the universe is through understanding the self, which is inherently intertwined with the Divine. Through his poetic language, Khurd captures the essence of this transformative realization, offering insights into the relationship between lover and beloved, and their union in the divine context.

Under the influence of figures like Sayyid ʿAlī Qāḍī Ṭabāṭabāʾī (1866-1947) and ʿAllāmah Sayyid Muḥammad Ḥusayn Ṭabāṭabāʼī (1321/1904-1402/1981), the Sufi School of Najaf has integrated Khurd's treatise into its spiritual pedagogy. This work serves as one of the foundational texts for spiritual development, emphasizing meditation, memorization, and the internalization of its teachings. It guides disciples in practices such as Muraqabah (meditation), Khalwah (seclusion), and Arba`in (the forty-day spiritual retreat), facilitating their journey in embracing the concept of Unity and transcending the self within the framework of Waḥdat al-Wujūd.

Finally, this paper examines the role of "Risāla-yi Nūr-i Waḥdat" in the Sufi School of Najaf, its impact on the spiritual formation of practitioners, and its broader implications in expanding the Akbarian doctrine of Waḥdat al-Wujūd in the Shia Irfān.