Targets of the Global Goals - Dom Billings Dom Billings

SDG #3 is to “To ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages.”
Within SDG #3 are 13 targets, of which we here focus on Target 3.4:
By 2030, reduce by one third premature mortality from non-communicable diseases through prevention and treatment and promote mental health and well-being.

SDG #3 is to “To ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages.”
Within SDG #3 are 13 targets, of which we here focus on Target 3.3:
By 2030, end the epidemics of AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria and neglected tropical diseases and combat hepatitis, water-borne diseases and other communicable diseases.
Target 3.3 has five indicators:
Indicator 3.3.1: Number of new HIV infections per 1,000 uninfected population
Indicator 3.3.2: Tuberculosis per 100,000 population
Indicator 3.3.3: Malaria incidence per 1,000 population
Indicator 3.3.4: Hepatitis B incidence per 100,000 population
Indicator 3.3.5: Number of people requiring interventions against neglected tropical disease 
Looking first at HIV/AIDS, this infection is caused by a type of retrovirus characterised by its ability to survive inside its hosts for long incubation periods. The nature of retroviruses is they copy their RNA into the DNA of a host, thus changing the genome.  
The UN agency overseeing the HIV/AIDS pandemic is the Joint UN Programme on HIV/AIDS, or UNAIDS for short, and is a joint effort of several UN agencies. 1.5 million people contract AIDS per year, resulting in 680,000 deaths in the latest year of data, with 38 million people living with the virus. A High-Level Meeting on AIDS declared the UN’s intent to end AIDS by 2030, in alignment with SDG Target #3.3. However another major pandemic, COVID-19, has slowed progress, with a current global rate of 0.19 new HIV infections per 1000 uninfected people, short of the 2030 goal for elimination of HIV. 
Turning next to tuberculosis, this is caused by infection of a pathogenic bacteria called Mycobacterium tuberculosis, transmitted between people via respiratory means. The bacteria causes 10.6 million people a year to fall ill, killing 1.6 million people in 2021. 
Within the World Health Organisation, the Global Tuberculosis Programme works toward ridding the world of TB from its current world level of an incidence of 127 TB cases per population of 100,000, down from 142 per 100,000 in 2015 at the start of the SDG period, and 174 in 2000, at the beginning of the MDG period. This was encapsulated in MDG #6 to “combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases”, and which aimed to halve the incidence of AIDS, malaria and TB by 2015, and reverse their incidence.
The world benefits from efforts such as the End TB Transmission Initiative, as part of the Stop TB Partnership, administered by the UN. Other impressive organisations in the fight against TB as well as AIDS, which are often co-morbidities alongside one another, include the The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria, Unitaid and IFFIm, in partnership with Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance.
One of the main strategies the WHO endorses for combating TB is DOTS, which stands for directly-observed treatment, short course, whereby a healthcare worker watches the patient take their dose. Immunisation with a TB vaccine is a widespread method of prevention. However, hampering global efforts to control and prevent TB are strains of TB resistant to drugs developed to treat the disease.
Alongside AIDS and TB, in 2020 there were 241 million cases malaria, resulting in 627,000 deaths. The mosquito-borne disease affects Africa to a disproportionate level, where it’s home to almost all cases and deaths. In the effort to end the malaria pandemic, the world is still shy of the mark, with an incidence of 59 new cases per 1,000 of the global population.
The following indicator focuses upon hepatitis B. Hepatitis is a disease characterised by inflammation of the liver. Hepatitis B is a viral type of hepatitis, cause

SDG #3 is to “To ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages.”
Within SDG #3 are 13 targets, of which we here focus on Target 3.2:
By 2030, end preventable deaths of newborns and children under 5 years of age, with all countries aiming to reduce neonatal mortality to at least as low as 12 per 1,000 live births and under-5 mortality to at least as low as 25 per 1,000 live births
Target 3.2 has two indicators:
Indicator 3.2.1: Under‑5 mortality rate
Indicator 3.2.2: Neonatal mortality rate
The under-5 mortality rate measures the number of child deaths occurring in a given population for those under the age of 5, whereas the neonatal mortality rate measures the number of infant deaths in a population.
Both indicators measure within a population for every 1000 live births, therefore excluding fetuses which did not survive the perinatal period. The definition of neonates, or newborns, for the purposes of Indicator 3.2.2 is within the first 28 days of birth, after which, the death of a child older than 28 days, but less than 5-year-old, would fit into the definition of Indicator 3.2.1
Data used for these measures is reported by UNICEF, the UN agency for aid for children. The source of data and estimates for child mortality and stillbirth estimates is collected by United Nations Inter-agency Group for Child Mortality Estimation (IGME), led by UNICEF, but supported by the WHO, the World Bank and the UN Population Division. The data is collected from a combination of deaths registered by the relevant civil bodies in a country, as well as census data and household surveys of full birth history. A full birth history is a list of all children a woman has given birth to, including their date of birth, sex, whether the child survived, the child’s age, if they’re still alive, or the age of death if they died. Another measure, summary birth history, only asks mothers for the number of children ever born and the number who died. Adjustments are made in calculating the mortality rate in areas with high prevalence of HIV/AIDS, as mothers who’ve died from AIDS are unable to report on the mortality of their children.
As of 2020, the child mortality rate for the world is 36.6 deaths per 1000 live births, down from 42.6 in 2015, the adoption year of the SDGs, and from 93.2 in 1990, yet still short of the 2030 target of 25 deaths of children under-5 per 1000 live births.
For the neonatal mortality rate, with an aim of 12 neonatal deaths per 1000 live births by 2030, the 2020 neonatal rate is 17, down from 19.3 in 2015, and 36.7 in 1990.

SDG #3 is to “To ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages.”
Within SDG #3 are 13 targets, of which we here focus on Target 3.1:
By 2030, reduce the global maternal mortality ratio to less than 70 per 100,000 live births.
Target 3.1 has two indicators:
Indicator 3.1.1: Maternal mortality ratio
Indicator 3.1.2: Proportion of births attended by skilled health personnel
The causes of maternal death are manifold. Many of the deaths relate to complications of the cardiovascular system of the blood vessels and the heart. These include postpartum bleeding, which can be treated with intravenous blood transfusion in countries and communities where healthcare coverage is sufficient to offer this. 
Mothers can experience high blood pressure in their arteries as a result of the pregnancy, in some instances identified by proteinuria, an abundance of proteins found in the urine. High blood pressure accompanied by proteinuria may indicate a form of high blood pressure related to pregnancy known as pre-eclampsia.
Strokes are possible, whereby blood flow is unable to reach the brain in sufficient amounts, leading to the death of cells. Likewise, embolisms can form in the pulmonary artery, impeding the heart from sending blood toward the lungs.
Other reasons can include obstructed labour and unsafe abortions.
In countries with high prevalence of HIV/AIDS, this is the leading cause of death during pregnancy and postpartum. 
Relevant to this, those countries with low GDP per capita are more likely to have less healthcare coverage, making poverty an obvious risk factor for maternal mortality. Another risk factor related to this is the fertility rate, reflecting a phenomenon whereby the birth rates of poor countries are higher because of the poverty trap. When compounded by low health care coverage in these countries, a high fertility rate, low levels of income and low health care coverage form a recipe for high maternal mortality rates.
In terms of prevention of maternal deaths, complications in the term of a pregnancy, childbirth and the postpartum period can be mitigated by the presence of skilled birth attendants, in communities where doctors specialised in obstetrics and gynaecology are absent.
Other worthwhile preventions are family planning methods and birth control, to prevent unwanted pregnancies putting a potential mother at risk of death.
Prenatal care can also act as a form of preventive healthcare
Healthcare coverage also tends to ensure an aseptic medical environment, free of pathogenic bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites which cause septic infections in tissues from these pathogens
Complementing the existence of health care coverage are public health campaigns, which can promote preventive behaviours and mitigate the risks of maternal death.
The Millenium Development Goals, the UN goals which preceded the SDGs, had an entire goal devoted to maternal health. Millenium Development Goal #5 set the objective to improve maternal health. Target #5A of the MDGs corresponds with the SDG target we’re looking at here, focused upon the maternal mortality ratio. Target #5A was to “Reduce by three-quarters, between 1990 and 2015, the maternal mortality ratio”
In setting a global standard for diagnosing health issues, the World Health Organisation classifies diseases according to the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD). According to this classification, maternal death is defined as deaths occurring whilst a mother is pregnant, or within 42 days following the termination of the pregnancy. 
The most recent global data for mater

SDG #2 is to “End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture”
Within SDG #2 are eight targets, of which we here focus on Target 2.c:
Adopt measures to ensure the proper functioning of food commodity markets and their derivatives and facilitate timely access to market information, including on food reserves, in order to help limit extreme food price volatility.
Target 2.c has a singular indicator:
Indicator 2.c.1: indicator of food price anomalies.
An indicator of food price anomalies is a measure of market prices which deviate much higher-than-normal prices. One of the means to measure this is via a consumer price index, or CPI. A CPI is a statistic measuring the inflation experienced by households, or the price changes of household expenditure. Within this, different categories of household expenditure can be broken down from the total, such as food expenditure. 
At the international level, FAOSTAT, the statistical body of the UN’s Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) collects this data. 
This responsibility is a function of Article I of the FAO Constitution, which calls on the FAO to “collect, analyse, interpret and disseminate information relating to nutrition, food and agriculture.”
The FAO uses the FPMA, or Food Price Monitoring and Analysis, a tool which holds information and analyses of consumer prices of basic foodstuffs over the years across developing countries. Thanks to such tools and data, this evidence can be used to help make political decisions about food and agriculture at the national and international level.

SDG #2 is to “End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture”
Within SDG #2 are eight targets, of which we here focus on Target 2.b, which is:
Correct and prevent trade restrictions and distortions in world agricultural markets, including through the parallel elimination of all forms of agricultural export subsidies and all export measures with equivalent effect, in accordance with the mandate of the Doha Development Round.
Target 2.b has a singular indicator: 
Indicator 2.b.1: agricultural export subsidies. 
First of all, what is the Doha Development Round? 
The Doha Development Round is a so-called round of negotiations within the World Trade Organisation, which began in 2001 at the WTO Ministerial Conference in Doha, the capital of Qatar, focused on the topic of lowering barriers to international trade. Whilst the WTO is an intergovernmental organisation, it is not part of the UN System. 
WTO Ministerial Conferences were subsequently held in Cancun and Hong Kong, but the contentions hindering agreement between developed and developing countries, particularly around agriculture subsidies paid by governments to agribusinesses, has been a relative constant, and is currently at an impasse.
Trade in goods and services between countries is generally considered a good thing. But when countries adopt protectionist economic policies such as taxes on imports or exports, import quotas, or any other hindrance at customs, other countries may consider such policies to put themselves at a relative trade disadvantage, in terms of the effect such policies could have on farmers and consumers in their own country.
Not all countries are members of the WTO, though 164 of the UN Member States are WTO Members. Largely, the organisation exists with the purpose of members collectively lowering tariffs and trade barriers, for both goods, as well as services and intellectual property, as well as setting out the procedures for settling disputes, whilst allowing for special treatment for developing countries. 
An important WTO treaty in the context of Target 2.b is the Agreement on Agriculture. This brings up another round of international trade negotiation, this one known as the Uruguay Round, under the aegis of the General Agreement on Tariffs & Trade, the forebear of the WTO.
The culmination of the Uruguay Round was the Marrakesh Agreement in Morocco, which established the WTO itself, as well as the Agreement on Agriculture was signed in April 1994.
It’s common for countries to support their domestic agriculture sectors, including subsidies for agricultural goods to be exported. In the jargon of Article 1 of the Agreement on Agriculture, this support is measured using the term the “Aggregate Measurement of Support”, for the annual monetary outlay in favour of an agricultural product. The idea is any support of income or price which boosts exports, or limits imports from another country, in a free trade environment, other countries are going to want to know why such support for the given product was necessary if they’re not to do likewise in their own countries. 
By definition of the WTO’s Subsidies Agreement, subsidies are any benefits conferred by government in the forms of transferring funds or guaranteeing loans, tax credits, providing goods or services outside of infrastructure, or otherwise purchasing goods, as well as financing a body outside of government to emulate the aforementioned functions. Per the Subsidies Agreement, WTO members are not to use subsidies causing adverse effects to other members, in the form of “injury to the domestic