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Mongolian warrior and ruler Genghis Khan created the largest empire in the world, the Mongol Empire, by destroying individual tribes in Northeast Asia.
Synopsis

Genghis Khan was born "Temujin" in Mongolia around 1162. He married at age 16, but had many wives during his lifetime. At 20, he began building a large army with the intent to destroy individual tribes in Northeast Asia and unite them under his rule. He was successful; the Mongol Empire was the largest empire in the world before the British Empire, and lasted well after his own death in 1227.

Early Life

Born in north central Mongolia around 1162, Genghis Khan was originally named "Temujin" after a Tatar chieftain that his father, Yesukhei, had captured. Young Temujin was a member of the Borjigin tribe and a descendant of Khabul Khan, who briefly united Mongols against the Jin (Chin) Dynasty of northern China in the early 1100s. According to the "Secret History of the Mongols" (a contemporary account of Mongol history), Temujin was born with a blood clot in his hand, a sign in Mongol folklore that he was destined to become a leader. His mother, Hoelun, taught him the grim reality of living in turbulent Mongol tribal society and the need for alliances.


When Temujin was 9, his father took him to live with the family of his future bride, Borte. On the return trip home, Yesukhei encountered members of the rival Tatar tribe, who invited him to a conciliatory meal, where he was poisoned for past transgressions against the Tatars. Upon hearing of his father's death, Temujin returned home to claim his position as clan chief. However, the clan refused to recognize the young boy's leadership and ostracized his family of younger brothers and half-brothers to near-refugee status. The pressure on the family was great, and in a dispute over the spoils of a hunting expedition, Temujin quarreled with and killed his half-brother, Bekhter, confirming his position as head of the family.

At 16, Temujin married Borte, cementing the alliance between the Konkirat tribe and his own. Soon after, Borte was kidnapped by the rival Merkit tribe and given to a chieftain as a wife. Temujin was able to rescue her, and soon after, she gave birth to her first son, Jochi. Though Borte's captivity with the Konkirat tribe cast doubt on Jochi's birth, Temujin accepted him as his own. With Borte, Temujin had four sons and many other children with other wives, as was Mongolian custom. However, only his male children with Borte qualified for succession in the family.

The 'Universal Ruler'

When Temujin was about 20, he was captured in a raid by former family allies, the Taichi'uts, and temporarily enslaved. He escaped with the help of a sympathetic captor, and joined his brothers and several other clansmen to form a fighting unit. Temujin began his slow ascent to power by building a large army of more than 20,000 men. He set out to destroy traditional divisions among the various tribes and unite the Mongols under his rule.

Following the victories over the rival Mongol tribes, other tribal leaders agreed to peace and bestowed on Temujin the title of "Genghis Khan," which means "universal ruler." The title carried not only political importance, but also spiritual significance. The leading shaman declared Genghis Khan the representative of Mongke Koko Tengri (the "Eternal Blue Sky"), the supreme god of the Mongols. With this declaration of divine status, it was accepted that his destiny was to rule the world. Religious tolerance was practiced in the Mongol Empire, but to defy the Great Khan was equal to defying the will of God. It was with such religious fervor that Genghis Khan is supposed to have said to one of his enemies, "I am the flail of God. If you had not committed great sins, God would not have sent a punishment like me upon you."

Genghis Khan's Death

Genghis Khan died in 1227, soon after the submission of the Xi Xia. The exact cause of his death is unknown. Some historians maintain that he

Nobel Prize winner Ernest Hemingway is seen as one of the great American 20th century novelists, and is known for works like 'A Farewell to Arms' and 'The Old Man and the Sea.'
Who Was Ernest Hemingway?

Ernest Hemingway served in World War I and worked in journalism before publishing his story collection In Our Time. He was renowned for novels like The Sun Also Rises, A Farewell to Arms, For Whom the Bell Tolls and The Old Man and the Sea, which won the Pulitzer Prize in 1953. In 1954, Hemingway won the Nobel Prize.

Early Life and Career

Ernest Miller Hemingway was born on July 21, 1899, in Cicero (now in Oak Park), Illinois. Clarence and Grace Hemingway raised their son in this conservative suburb of Chicago, but the family also spent a great deal of time in northern Michigan, where they had a cabin. It was there that the future sportsman learned to hunt, fish and appreciate the outdoors.

In high school, Hemingway worked on his school newspaper, Trapeze and Tabula, writing primarily about sports. Immediately after graduation, the budding journalist went to work for the Kansas City Star, gaining experience that would later influence his distinctively stripped-down prose style.

He once said, "On the Star you were forced to learn to write a simple declarative sentence. This is useful to anyone. Newspaper work will not harm a young writer and could help him if he gets out of it in time."

Military Experience

In 1918, Hemingway went overseas to serve in World War I as an ambulance driver in the Italian Army. For his service, he was awarded the Italian Silver Medal of Bravery, but soon sustained injuries that landed him in a hospital in Milan.

There he met a nurse named Agnes von Kurowsky, who soon accepted his proposal of marriage, but later left him for another man. This devastated the young writer but provided fodder for his works "A Very Short Story" and, more famously, A Farewell to Arms.

Still nursing his injury and recovering from the brutalities of war at the young age of 20, he returned to the United States and spent time in northern Michigan before taking a job at the Toronto Star.

It was in Chicago that Hemingway met Hadley Richardson, the woman who would become his first wife. The couple married and quickly moved to Paris, where Hemingway worked as a foreign correspondent for the Star.

Life in Europe

In Paris, Hemingway soon became a key part of what Gertrude Stein would famously call "The Lost Generation." With Stein as his mentor, Hemingway made the acquaintance of many of the great writers and artists of his generation, such as F. Scott Fitzgerald, Ezra Pound, Pablo Picasso and James Joyce. In 1923, Hemingway and Hadley had a son, John Hadley Nicanor Hemingway. By this time, the writer had also begun frequenting the famous Festival of San Fermin in Pamplona, Spain.

Soon after the publication of The Sun Also Rises, Hemingway and Hadley divorced, due in part to his affair with a woman named Pauline Pfeiffer, who would become Hemingway's second wife shortly after his divorce from Hadley was finalized. The author continued to work on his book of short stories, Men Without Women.

Critical Acclaim

When he wasn't writing, Hemingway spent much of the 1930s chasing adventure: big-game hunting in Africa, bullfighting in Spain and deep-sea fishing in Florida. While reporting on the Spanish Civil War in 1937, Hemingway met a fellow war correspondent named Martha Gellhorn (soon to become wife number three) and gathered material for his next novel, For Whom the Bell Tolls, which would eventually be nominated for the Pulitzer Prize.

When the United States entered World War II in 1941, Hemingway served as a correspondent and was present at several of the war's key moments, including the D-Day landing. Toward the end of the war, Hemingway met another war correspondent, Mary Welsh, whom he would later marry after divorcing Gellhorn.

In 1951, Hemingway wrote The Old Man and the Sea, which would become perhaps his mos

Lebanon-born writer and artist Kahlil Gibran became known for his mystical Arabic and English works, earning fame following the 1923 publication of 'The Prophet.'
Who Was Kahlil Gibran?

Kahlil Gibran moved to the United States in 1895 and was exposed to Boston's artistic community. Initially showing promise as an artist, he also began writing newspaper columns and books in Arabic, drawing attention for his prose poems. After moving to New York City, Gibran began writing books in English, including his most famous work, The Prophet (1923). The popularity of The Prophet endured well after the author's death in 1931, making him the third-best-selling poet of all time.

Early Years

Gibran Khalil Gibran was born on January 6, 1883, to a Maronite Christian family in Bsharri, Lebanon. A quiet, sensitive young boy, he displayed an early artistic aptitude and a love for nature that became evident in later works. His early education was sporadic, although he received informal lessons from a local doctor.

Gibran's temperamental father worked as a tax collector, but he was charged with embezzlement and his property was seized. Seeking a better life, Gibran's mother in 1895 moved the family to Boston, Massachusetts, where they settled in the immigrant South End neighborhood.


Artistic Development

Receiving his first formal schooling, where he was registered under his now-commonly known name of Kahlil Gibran, the 13-year-old stood out with his artistic ability. He was steered to photographer and publisher Fred Holland Day, who nurtured Gibran's talents and introduced him to a wider artistic community.

At 15, Gibran returned to his home country to attend a Maronite school in Beirut, where he displayed an interest in poetry and founded a student magazine. He returned to Boston in 1901 shortly after the death of one of his sisters from tuberculosis; the following year, his brother and mother passed away as well.

Financially supported by his surviving sister, a seamstress, Gibran continued to work on his art. In 1904, he enjoyed an exhibition of his drawings at Day's studio, and he began writing a weekly column for the Arabic newspaper al-Mohajer. Gibran drew a following for his "prose poems," which were more accessible than traditional Arabic works and explored themes of loneliness and a loss of connection to nature. He published a pamphlet on his love for music in 1905, and followed with two collections of short stories.

New York Years

Establishing himself in New York's artistic circles, Gibran in 1912 published the novella al-Ajniha al-mutakassira (Broken Wings). He had an exhibition of his paintings in late 1914, although by then his Symbolist-influenced style was becoming outdated in the art world.

Gibran began writing for the Arabic newspaper al-Funun, and with the outbreak of World War I he expressed more nationalistic leanings. He joined the board of another newspaper, Fatat Boston, and in 1920 he founded al-Rabitah al-Qalamiyah (The Pen Bond), a society of Arab writers.

With the help of Mary Haskell, Gibran began writing books in English, producing a collection of parables with The Madman (1918) and The Forerunner (1920). In 1919, he also published the poem al-Mawakib (The Procession) and a book of art, Twenty Drawings.

Books: 'The Prophet'

In 1923, Gibran published what became his most famous work, The Prophet. Centered on the character of Almustafa, a holy man set to return home after 12 years in exile, the book expounds on matters of love, sorrow and religion over 26 poetic essays. The limited reviews were mixed, but The Prophet quickly sold out its first edition and continued selling steadily, giving its author his first taste of widespread fame.

Death

However, by this time Gibran was also battling alcoholism and becoming more of a recluse. One final completed book, The Earth Gods, hit shelves in early 1931, and he finished a manuscript of what became The Wanderer (1932) shortly before his death on April 10, 1931,

One of the most influential occult thinkers of the nineteenth century, Helena Petrovna Blavatsky (1831-1891) left behind conflicting images of adventuress, author, mystic, guru, occultist, and charlatan. With the aid of Col. Henry Olcott and William Q. Judge, she founded the Theosophical Society in New York in 1875.

Born at Ekaterinoslav, Russia, on July 31, 1831, Blavatsky was the daughter of Col. Peter Hahn, a member of a Mecklenburg family settled in Russia. In order to gain converts to Theosophy, she felt obliged to appear to perform miracles. This she did with a large measure of success, but her methods were on several occasions detected as fraudulent. Nevertheless, her commanding personality secured for her a large following.

An enigmatic personality, Blavatsky was raised in an atmosphere saturated with superstition and fantasy. She loved to surround herself with mystery as a child and claimed to her playmates that in the subterranean corridors of their old house at Saratow, where she used to wander about, she was never alone, but had companions and playmates whom she called her "hunchbacks." Blavatsky was often discovered in a dark tower underneath the roof, where she put pigeons into a mesmeric sleep by stroking them. She was unruly, and as she grew older she often shocked her relatives by her masculine behavior. Once, riding astride a Cossack horse, she fell from the saddle and her foot became entangled in the stirrup. She claimed that she ought to have been killed outright were it not for the strange sustaining power she distinctly felt around her, which seemed to hold her up in defiance of gravitation.

According to the records of her sister, Blavatsky showed frequent evidence of somnambulism as a child, speaking aloud and often walking in her sleep. She saw eyes glaring at her from inanimate objects or from phantasmal forms, from which she would run away screaming and frighten the entire household. In later years she claimed to have seen a phantom protector whose imposing appearance had dominated her imagination. Blavatsky's powers of make-believe were remarkable. She possessed great natural musical talents, had a fearful temper, a passionate curiosity for the unknown and weird, and an intense craving for independence and action.

At the age of 17, she was married to General Blavatsky, an old man from whom she escaped three months later. She then fled abroad and led a wild, wandering life for ten years all over the world, in search of mysteries. When she returned to Russia she possessed well-developed mediumistic gifts. Raps, whisperings, and other mysterious sounds were heard all over the house, objects moved about in obedience to her will, their weight decreased and increased as she wished, and winds swept through the apartment, extinguishing lamps and candles. She gave exhibitions of clairvoyance, discovered a murderer for the police, and narrowly escaped being charged as an accomplice.

In 1860 Blavatsky became severely ill. A wound below the heart, which she received from a sword cut in magical practice in the East, opened again, causing her intense agony, convulsions, and trance. After Blavatsky recovered, her spontaneous physical phenomena disappeared, and she claimed that they only occurred after that time in obedience to her will.

Blavatsky again went abroad and, disguised as a man, she fought under Garibaldi and was left for dead in the battle of Mentana. She fought back to life, had a miraculous escape at sea on a Greek vessel that was blown up and, in 1871 in Cairo, she founded the Societe Spirite. It was a dubious venture that soon expired amid cries of fraud and embezzlement, reflecting considerably on the reputation of the founder.

Blavatsky nevertheless succeeded in living down every attack during her lifetime, continued her work, gained many new adherents to Theosophy, and published a work, The Secret Doctrine, which was claimed to have been written in a supernormal condition. Whatever concl

Mohandas Gandhi is one of the most famous leaders and champions for justice in the world. His principles and firm belief in non-violence have been followed by many other important civil rights leaders including Martin Luther King, Jr. and Nelson Mandela. His renown is such that he is mostly just referred to by the single name "Gandhi". Where did Mohandas Gandhi grow up? Mohandas was born in Porbandar, India on October 2, 1869.

He came from an upper class family and his father was a leader in the local community. As was tradition where he grew up, Mohandas' parents arranged a marriage for him at the age of 13. Both the arranged marriage and the young age may seem strange to some of us, but it was the normal way of doing things where he grew up. Mohandas' parents wanted him to become a barrister, which is a type of lawyer. As a result, when he was 19 years old Mohandas traveled to England where he studied law at the University College London. Three years later he returned to India and started his own law practice. Unfortunately, Mohandas' law practice wasn't successful, so he took a job with an Indian Law firm and moved to South Africa to work out of the South African law office. It was in South Africa where Gandhi would experience racial prejudice against Indians and would begin his work in civil rights. What did Gandhi do?

Once back in India, Gandhi led the fight for Indian independence from the British Empire. He organized several non-violent civil disobedience campaigns. During these campaigns, large groups of the Indian population would do things like refusing to work, sitting in the streets, boycotting the courts, and more. Each of these protests may seem small by themselves, but when most of the population does them at once, they can have an enormous impact. Gandhi was put in prison several times for organizing these protests. He would often fast (not eat) while he was in prison.

The British government would eventually have to release him because the Indian people had grown to love Gandhi. The British were scared what would happen if they let him die. One of Gandhi's most successful protests was called the Salt March. When Britain put a tax on salt, Gandhi decided to walk 241 miles to the sea in Dandi to make his own salt. Thousands of Indians joined him in his march. Gandhi also fought for civil rights and liberties among Indian people. Did he have other names? Mohandas Gandhi is often called Mahatma Gandhi. Mahatma is a term that means Great Soul. It's a religious title sort of like "Saint" in Christianity. In India he is called the Father of the Nation and also Bapu, which means father.

How did Mohandas die? Gandhi was assassinated on January 30, 1948. He was shot by a terrorist while attending a prayer meeting.

Albert Camus was a French Algerian writer best known for his absurdist works, including 'The Stranger' and 'The Plague.' He won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1957.

Who Was Albert Camus?

Albert Camus became known for his political journalism, novels and essays during the 1940s. His best-known works, including The Stranger (1942) and The Plague (1947), are exemplars of absurdism. Camus won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1957 and died on January 4, 1960, in Burgundy, France.

Early Life

Camus was born on November 7, 1913, in Mondavi, French Algeria. His pied-noir family had little money. Camus' father died in combat during World War I, after which Camus lived with his mother, who was partially deaf, in a low-income section of Algiers.

Camus did well in school and was admitted to the University of Algiers, where he studied philosophy and played goalie for the soccer team. He quit the team following a bout of tuberculosis in 1930, thereafter focusing on academic study. By 1936, he had obtained undergraduate and graduate degrees in philosophy.

Political Engagement

Camus became political during his student years, joining first the Communist Party and then the Algerian People's Party. As a champion of individual rights, he opposed French colonization and argued for the empowerment of Algerians in politics and labor. Camus would later be associated with the French anarchist movement.


At the beginning of World War II, Camus joined the French Resistance in order to help liberate Paris from the Nazi occupation; he met Jean-Paul Sartre during his period of military service. Like Sartre, Camus wrote and published political commentary on the conflict throughout its duration. In 1945, he was one of the few Allied journalists to condemn the American use of the atomic bomb in Hiroshima. He was also an outspoken critic of communist theory, eventually leading to a rift with Sartre.

Literary Career

The dominant philosophical contribution of Camus' work is absurdism. While he is often associated with existentialism, he rejected the label, expressing surprise that he would be viewed as a philosophical ally of Sartre. Elements of absurdism and existentialism are present in Camus' most celebrated writing. The Myth of Sisyphus (1942) elucidates his theory of the absurd most directly. The protagonists of The Stranger (1942) and The Plague (1947) must also confront the absurdity of social and cultural orthodoxies, with dire results.

As an Algerian, Camus brought a fresh, outsider perspective to French literature of the period — related to but distinct from the metropolitan literature of Paris. In addition to novels, he wrote and adapted plays, and was active in the theater during the 1940s and '50s. His later literary works include The Fall (1956) and Exile and the Kingdom (1957).

Nobel Prize and Death

Albert Camus was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1957. He died on January 4, 1960, in Burgundy, France.

Personal Life

Camus married and divorced twice as a young man, stating his disapproval of the institution of marriage throughout.