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The Interpreter Foundation is a nonprofit educational organization focused on the scriptures of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (the Book of Mormon, the Pearl of Great Price, the Bible, and the Doctrine and Covenants), early LDS history, and related subjects. All publications in its journal, Interpreter: A Journal of Latter-day Saint Faith and Scholarship, are peer-reviewed and made available as free internet downloads or through at-cost print-on-demand services. Other posts on the website are not necessarily peer-reviewed, but are approved by Interpreter’s Executive Board.



Our goal is to increase understanding of scripture through careful scholarly investigation and analysis of the insights provided by a wide range of ancillary disciplines, including language, history, archaeology, literature, culture, ethnohistory, art, geography, law, politics, philosophy, statistics, etc. Interpreter will also publish articles advocating the authenticity and historicity of LDS scripture and the Restoration, along with scholarly responses to critics of the LDS faith. We hope to illuminate, by study and faith, the eternal spiritual message of the scriptures—that Jesus is the Christ.



Although the Board fully supports the goals and teachings of the Church, The Interpreter Foundation is an independent entity and is not owned, controlled by, or affiliated with The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints or with Brigham Young University. All research and opinions provided on this site are the sole responsibility of their respective authors, and should not be interpreted as the opinions of the Board nor as official statements of LDS doctrine, belief, or practice.

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The Interpreter Foundation is a nonprofit educational organization focused on the scriptures of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (the Book of Mormon, the Pearl of Great Price, the Bible, and the Doctrine and Covenants), early LDS history, and related subjects. All publications in its journal, Interpreter: A Journal of Latter-day Saint Faith and Scholarship, are peer-reviewed and made available as free internet downloads or through at-cost print-on-demand services. Other posts on the website are not necessarily peer-reviewed, but are approved by Interpreter’s Executive Board.



Our goal is to increase understanding of scripture through careful scholarly investigation and analysis of the insights provided by a wide range of ancillary disciplines, including language, history, archaeology, literature, culture, ethnohistory, art, geography, law, politics, philosophy, statistics, etc. Interpreter will also publish articles advocating the authenticity and historicity of LDS scripture and the Restoration, along with scholarly responses to critics of the LDS faith. We hope to illuminate, by study and faith, the eternal spiritual message of the scriptures—that Jesus is the Christ.



Although the Board fully supports the goals and teachings of the Church, The Interpreter Foundation is an independent entity and is not owned, controlled by, or affiliated with The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints or with Brigham Young University. All research and opinions provided on this site are the sole responsibility of their respective authors, and should not be interpreted as the opinions of the Board nor as official statements of LDS doctrine, belief, or practice.

    King Benjamin’s Sermon as a Type of Temple Endowment

    King Benjamin’s Sermon as a Type of Temple Endowment

    Abstract: To more permanently unify the Mulekites and the Nephites as a reunited kingdom of Israel, King Benjamin gathered his people at the temple, and in his role as a king and priest after the order of Melchizedek, imparted teachings that bear resemblance to the Latter-day Saint temple endowment ceremony first introduced in Nauvoo. Several of these similarities are explored in depth. Since the book of Mosiah is one of the earliest extant texts of Joseph Smith’s prophetic ministry, this finding adds to a growing body of literature that suggests that temple themes are apparent in the unfolding Restoration earlier than has been commonly recognized. King Benjamin’s sermon also provides a model for how the latter-day covenant people of the Lord can establish a modern “kingdom of priests” in preparation for the second coming of Jesus Christ.





    On May 3, 1842, Joseph Smith, with the help of Lucius Scovil and others, prepared the upper room of his Red Brick Store in Nauvoo, Illinois, to represent “the interior of a temple as much as the circumstances would permit.”1 The next day, Joseph Smith invited a small number of faithful men to meet with him at the store.



    On the wall was a newly painted mural. Small trees and plants stood nearby, suggesting a garden setting. Another part of the room was sectioned off with a rug hung up like a curtain. . . .





    For the rest of the afternoon, the prophet introduced an ordinance to the men. . . .





    The new ordinance . . . drew upon scriptural accounts of [Page 2]the Creation and the Garden of Eden . . . to guide the men step-by-step through the plan of salvation. . . .





    They received knowledge that would enable them to return to the presence of God. Along the way, the men made covenants to live righteous, chaste lives and dedicate themselves to serving the Lord.





    Joseph called the ordinance the endowment and trusted the men not to reveal the special knowledge they learned that day. . . . As soon as the temple was finished, both men and women would be able to receive the ordinance.2



    Notably, certain elements of the endowment ceremony3 bore close resemblances to symbols and language found in Masonic rituals, a connection that was observed by participants at the time. For example, one of the first men to receive the endowment, Master Mason Heber C. Kimball,



    wrote of this experience to fellow Apostle Parley P. Pratt, who was on a mission in England. “We have received some precious things through the Prophet on the priesthood,” Kimball wrote of the endowment, noting that “there is a similarity of priesthood in masonry.” He told Pratt that Joseph believed Masonry was “taken from priesthood but has become degenerated.”a id="footnote4anc" href="#footnote4sym" title="4. “Masonry,” Church History Topics, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints,

    Premortal Life and Mortal Life: A Fearful Symmetry

    Premortal Life and Mortal Life: A Fearful Symmetry

    Abstract: Bodily weakness, along with the varied circumstances into which we were born, provide the essential initial and ongoing conditions that shape the challenges and opportunities of our mortal probation. In life, we are not expected merely to preserve our innocence in defiance of worldly tendencies, nor are we compelled to cede to cynicism in the face of disheartening earthly experience. Rather, we are meant to follow the Savior in uniting the state of innocence with that of experience, thus joyfully fulfilling the unique mission that has been generously given to each of us.





    [Editor’s Note: This essay was adapted and expanded from Jeffrey M. Bradshaw, “Appreciation for Terryl Givens’s ‘When Souls Had Wings’: The Fearful Symmetry of Premortal and Postmortal Life,” From the Desk of Kurt Manwaring (blog), 4 January 2024, https://www.fromthedesk.org/terryl-givens-when-souls-had-wings-book-review/.]

    A friend once told me a story about an elderly woman in his ward who had passed away. The woman, who had planned the details of her funeral service in advance, had selected organ music for the program and listed my friend’s wife as the one who should play it. She struggled as she practiced, not only because the piece was difficult, but also because the deceased woman had a reputation of being very critical of other people. As she played, she reflected in discouragement that if that woman had been there to hear her mistakes, she would have received an earful of mean comments. Then, suddenly, she heard the voice of the woman in her mind. It said, “I’m not like that now.”

    Of course, I relate this story not as a commentary on the life of a singular person but rather as a reminder of our shared condition. I find personal encouragement in these words from beyond the veil. They [Page viii]impress on me the truth that, after death, not only will our physical and mental infirmities be removed but also many of the chronic personality dispositions that challenge our best efforts to overcome them. That the deceased woman was so quickly freed from fastidiousness at death, with no prolonged period of repentance required to effect the change, reminds us that human weakness should not be summarily ascribed to sin. Wendy Ulrich clarifies the distinction between “weakness,” “sin,” and “strength” as follows:

    Weakness is inherent in the mortal body — which is fashioned from the elements of earth, shaped by circumstances and experience, and subject to temptation, sickness, injury, fatigue, and death. Out of this general state of human weakness we experience specific weaknesses such as variations in mental or physical well-being, vulnerability to desires and appetites, predispositions to various physical and emotional states, or differing levels of talents or abilities. All these varying attributes come with the territory of having a mortal body. [And, I would add, these attributes are not only shaped by our circumstances but also include our circumstances, which extend or limit our freedom and opportunities to act in the world in accordance with our desires.]

    Sin is a state of rebellion against God. It almost always involves believing Satan over God about what is real, what is useful, or what will make us happy. It often entails self-centeredness, self-deception, and selfishness. …

    Strength in its highest sense is what makes us more like God. While we often think of strength as having to do with our abilities and talents, the strength that interests God has to do with our character — our moral choices, our spiritual gifts, and our righteous desires. … Some of our specific strengths apparently came with us from the premortal experience; others are ours by blessing from the Lord as part of our mortal stewardship; still others we develop here out of weak...

    Recovering the Lost Concept of Truth in the Restoration Scriptures: Another Key to Understanding God’s Word

    Recovering the Lost Concept of Truth in the Restoration Scriptures: Another Key to Understanding God’s Word

    Abstract: The word “truth” has for practical purposes lost one of its original English-language meanings, and this has significant implications for understanding scriptures. The obvious, well-understood meaning is that which is real or factual. However, the earliest meaning in English is that which is true in an entirely different way, in the sense of fidelity, loyalty, and faithfulness. The King James translators frequently used “truth” in this latter sense. The sense of “truth” as “faithfulness” remained well known in the nineteenth century. Some passages in the Book of Mormon and other Restoration scriptures reveal deeper insights when read with this understanding. Pondering both meanings of “truth” in the scriptures can serve as a source of inspiration and learning.





    A conversation such as the following is probably familiar: “Do I turn left at the next intersection?” “Right! No, I mean, correct! Left!” We joke about occasional confusion between the two major meanings of the word right but seldom get seriously confounded. The two quite different meanings, which are remotely derived from the same origin, are easily distinguishable now by context.

    In a famous statement by Pontius Pilate, just as he agreed to the death of the Savior of the world, he asked “What is truth?” This paper will provide at least partial help in answering that question.

    The changeable nature of word meaning creates challenges for discipleship and a serious study of the scriptures. Shifts in meaning may generate novel nuance or striking differences. Once-common words can become quaint or obscure, which can be a stumbling block in reading King James period literature.

    [Page 446]The meaning of truth at first glance seems obvious: that which is true and factual, corresponding to reality. Truth (true-th) is the quality or condition of being true. However, truth can and in the past frequently did refer to the meaning of true as faithful or loyal. Although in less common usage now, we readily understand true/faithful in such phrases as “true to one’s beliefs” or “true to his or her favorite team.” We are familiar with this use in the hymn “True to the Faith.”1 Elder David A. Bednar intentionally used both meanings of true in an address in the October 2012 General Conference with a short chiasm: “We should know the gospel is true and be true to the gospel.”2 Truth is the noun (nominative) form of the adjective true and can derive from either underlying meaning. Some passages in the scriptures of the Restoration yield richer significance when read with both meanings in mind.

    What is Truth?

    Before examining scriptural use of the word truth, let us look at its origin. It is revealing to look at the use of truth in popular literature at the time of the translation of the KJV and at the time of the publication of the Book of Mormon.

    Origins and Early Use in English

    Truth as faithfulness is in fact the older attested meaning, documented in Old English. The broad meaning is listed in the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) as the “quality or character of being true to a person, principle, cause, etc.; steadfast allegiance; faithfulness, fidelity, loyalty, constancy,” with four subdefinitions.3 This is followed by an observation: “now somewhat rare.”

    For simplicity, this usage will be listed here as truth/fidelity. The word derives from Germanic and Proto-Germanic words meaning “firm, solid,

    Proper Names and Political Claims: Semitic Echoes as Foundations for Claims to the Nephite Throne

    Proper Names and Political Claims: Semitic Echoes as Foundations for Claims to the Nephite Throne

    Abstract: The Book of Mormon contains examples of phonemes in character names that resemble Semitic root words. The possible meanings of the names and their timing in the Book of Mormon narrative provide a deeper level of context to the Nephite political challenges in the books of Mosiah through 3 Nephi. Specifically, the English phonemes for the Hebrew and Arabic root-word for “king,” M-L-K, appear in character names in the Book of Mormon narrative when the people of Zarahemla, who were descended from Mulek, the last king of Judah, are discovered by the Nephites in the book of Omni. “King” names then appear frequently during the time in the narrative in which there are attempts to reestablish a monarchy during the early reign of the judges. “King” names disappear after “Moroni put an end to those king-men, that there were not any known by the appellation of king-men” (Alma 51:21, 62:9). The presence and timing of these “king” names suggests that the Mulekite claim to the local Israelite throne resonated rhetorically through Nephite politics for over a century and was violently contested in the multiple civil and external wars in the books of Alma through 3 Nephi.





    Readers of the Book of Mormon are exposed to over 300 proper names of characters and places.1 Many of the names are Biblical names, or direct copies of Biblical names, but many of the names in the Book of Mormon are unique to that book. While early critics once attributed the unique names to the active imagination of Joseph Smith, Jr., the translator, [Page 410]English-language scholars of the last century have had more access to ancient Near Eastern texts and look at the unique names as evidence that supports the historicity of the Book of Mormon as an ancient text. For an early example, in 1957, Hugh Nibley gave his opinion that the names of Lehi’s children were “pure Arabic” and that some of the unique proper names in the Book of Mormon resembled “Egyptian and Hebrew … along with a sprinkling of Hittite, Arabic, and Greek names.”2 Scholars have built on that initial work, and much has now been written about linguistic evidence for Book of Mormon authenticity. Summarizing this work, Kyler Rasmussen writes that “these efforts have yielded dozens of plausible Semitic and Egyptian etymological connections and dozens of meaningful wordplays that suggest that these names were far from random selections from Joseph’s brain.”3

    We will discuss material that implicitly provides evidence that can contribute to the conversation of authenticity; however, this is mainly focused on understanding the narrative of the Book of Mormon more deeply. It will, therefore, focus on describing linguistic patterns that add to the work of other scholars to make connections between seemingly unrelated events and themes. These connections help further the work to more “fully comprehend the reality” ...

    Prophet or Loss: Mosiah1/Zeniff, Benjamin/Noah, Mosiah2/Limhi and the Emergence of the Almas

    Prophet or Loss: Mosiah1/Zeniff, Benjamin/Noah, Mosiah2/Limhi and the Emergence of the Almas

    Abstract: Mormon’s overwhelmingly dominant rhetorical purpose is to testify of Christ, which he and his protagonists often directly do. But he also communicates his testimony more subtly through carefully crafted historical narratives. His use of frame narratives is especially artful. In the Book of Mosiah, Mormon frames the dispiriting account of Zeniff and Noah’s rule with the story of its aftermath: the suffering of Limhi and his people, which is recounted both before and after the central Zeniff/Noah narrative and which underscores the folly in the narrative it frames. The Limhi story is, in turn, framed by a Mosiah family narrative that features prophet kings Mosiah1, Benjamin, and Mosiah2 and that, likewise, underscores the folly in the Zeniff/Noah/Limhi story through pointed contrasts with Mosiah1/Benjamin/Mosiah2, the antitypes of the Zeniff-family kings. Benjamin’s great discourse on Christ, the most important component of the Mosiah narrative is also set within a frame narrative, a coronation account, which creates a political subtext in that great spiritual sermon and that, likewise, underscores the folly of the Zeniff family’s failure to follow the prophets God sent them. The article concludes by discussing the emergence of the Almas as the first family of Nephite history, the connecting thread that runs through Mormon’s account of the next ten generations of Nephite history.





    In the Book of Mormon, Mormon uses narrative to illustrate important truths. One truth he copiously illustrates is that bad things happen, even to good people, if they choose to reject the counsel of God that comes to them through prophets. One way Mormon artfully teaches this truth is by recounting the parallel histories of two contemporary dynasties, the prophet-led Mantic dynasty of Mosiah1 in the land of [Page 368]Zarahemla and the contrasting Sophic dynasty of a good-man, Zeniff, in the land of Nephi.1

    Things must be alike in important ways to form a clear contrast. We contrast apples with oranges, not with prepositions. Understanding this, Mormon illustrates his truth about the importance of prophets by recounting historical narratives that are similar on a large number of dimensions but that repeatedly prove to be type and antitype when the parallels are closely examined. To be specific, Mormon develops his theme that it is foolish to reject the guidance of God that comes to us through prophets by comparing and contrasting the lives of the similarly situated monarchs Mosiah1 and Zeniff, Benjamin and Noah, and Mosiah2 and Limhi.

    Mormon develops these contrasts and marks the emergence of the Almas as the first family of the Nephite nation, as the connecting thread that will run through the succeeding ten generations of Nephite history, using a sophisticated literary technique, the frame narrative. (A frame narrative is a story that has another story embedded in it, with the main story both preceding and following the embedded story.2) In the Book of Mosiah, three comparatively short frame narratives comment on and add new dimensions of meaning to the longer, embedded main narratives that they frame.

    Mosiah1/Zeniff

    Let us begin with the contrast between the first Mosiah, Mosiah1 and his antitype, Zeniff.

    Trees and the Love of God

    Trees and the Love of God

    Abstract: Trees play real and metaphorical roles in the beliefs and holy scriptures of many world religions, and believers and non-believers throughout the world are uplifted spiritually by trees. In the Book of Mormon, a tree with delicious, sweet fruit appeared in two visions and one parable. Respectively, the tree represents the love of God as seen through the life and sacrifice of Jesus Christ and symbolizes spiritual growth as one experimentally nourishes faith from a seed. Trees and fruit in the world around us can remind us of important lessons from these teachings and help keep us focused on the Lord because trees embody godly attributes and illustrate righteous principles. Trees and God’s love are universal, meant to be dispersed, beautiful, long-lasting or eternal, strong, gifts, providers of bounty, givers of joy, and sources of shelter and comfort. From trees, we learn to shun pride, have proper priorities, be patient and persevering, keep growing spiritually, be well-rooted, and pursue spirituality. Trees kindle awe, reverence, and love in us. Whenever we see a tree or eat fruit or nuts from a tree, we can be reminded of God’s love and to choose righteousness. Trees can inspire us to continue nurturing our spiritual growth; by doing so, our lives can be monumental like trees.





    The prophet Lehi had a remarkable dream that is symbolic of people’s earthly journey: the allure of evil, struggles of life, love of family, and joy of the gospel (1 Nephi 8).1 He traveled and prayed in darkness and was led to a tree with sweet fruit “desirable to make one happy.” Eating the fruit filled his soul with happiness. Other events and objects materialized, but the tree was the preeminent symbol of his dream.

    [Page 314]After learning of the dream, Lehi’s son Nephi desired to also experience the vision of this amazing tree and to understand its meaning (1 Nephi 11). His desires were fulfilled. Nephi said the tree was “exceeding of all beauty,” and was “precious above all.” After seeing a vision of the birth of Jesus Christ, Nephi understood that the tree symbolized “the love of God” manifested to his children. This love “is the most desirable above all things … and the most joyous to the soul.” A further vision of the ministry and death of Jesus Christ amplified that message.

    Later in the Book of Mormon, the prophet Alma invited a group of potential converts to experiment with faith in God (Alma 32:26–43). Alma proposed that if spiritual values were true and a person simply allowed the possibility of belief and had a desire to know if the values were true, one’s faith would grow like a tree from a seed. A true seed planted in one’s heart will sprout and begin to swell. If nourished properly, one’s faith in true spiritual values will become a great tree and bear sweet fruit similar to the one in Lehi’s dream. If the spiritual values were not true, then the seed would not grow. Or, if a good seed did start to grow but was not nourished, then one’s faith would die like an unwatered tree scorched by the sun’s heat.

    Previous analyses of the tree in Lehi’s dream and Nephi’s vision often have focused on ties with ancient cultures.2 For example, the tree was recognized by both Lehi and Nephi as a sacred symbol, apparently without them being told it was so. They recognized the sacred symbol because of their na...

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